Introduction to Joel

The subject of Joel's prophecy is the "great and awesome" day of the Lord. In this, many of his prophecies take us to the future tribulation period. Throughout the book, Joel introduces his prophecy with "the word of the Lord," "the Lord has spoken," "I am the Lord your God," or a similar phrase that is clearly a reference to the specific and direct word of Yahweh. Joel is often quoted by other biblical writers; the most famous being Peter's quote in Acts 2:16-21 of Joel 2:

"And it shall come to pass afterward, that I will pour out my Spirit on all flesh; your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, and your young men shall see visions. Even on the male and female servants in those days I will pour out my Spirit. And I will show wonders in the heavens and on the earth, blood and fire and columns of smoke. The sun shall be turned to darkness, and the moon to blood, before the great and awesome day of the LORD comes. And it shall come to pass that everyone who calls on the name of the LORD shall be saved. For in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there shall be those who escape, as the LORD has said, and among the survivors shall be those whom the LORD calls." (Joel 2:28-32)

Joel concludes with great hope for the restoration of Israel:

But Judah shall be inhabited forever, and Jerusalem to all generations. I will avenge their blood, blood I have not avenged, for the LORD dwells in Zion. (Joel 3:20-21)

Author

The book of Joel was written by a prophet of the same name. He begins the book with the phrase, "the word of the LORD that came to Joel, the son of Pethuel." Some have speculated that he lived in, or near Jerusalem because of his references to that community (cf. Joel 2:32; Joel 3:1, Joel 3:6, Joel 3:8, Joel 3:16-20) but this cannot be substantiated. There is nothing else known about Joel.

Date

The prophecy of Joel has been dated everywhere from the 9th Century BC to the 4th Century BC, with portions dated as late as 200 BC. John Calvin in his commentary wrote:

The time in which he prophesied is uncertain. Some of the Jews imagine that he exercised his office in the time of Joram, king of Israel, because a dreadful famine then prevailed through the whole land, as it appears evident from sacred history; and as the Prophet record a famine, they suppose that his ministry must be referred to that time. Some think, that he taught under Manasseh, but they bring no reason for this opinion; it is, therefore, a mere conjecture. Others think that he performed his office as a teacher not only under one king, but that he taught, at the same time with Isaiah, under several kings.

But as there is no certainty, it is better to leave the time in which he taught undecided; and, as we shall see, this is of no great importance. Not to know the time of Hosea would be to readers a great loss for there are many parts which could not be explained without a knowledge of history; but as to Joel there is . . . less need of this; for the import of his doctrine is evident, though his time be obscure and uncertain. But we may conclude that he taught at Jerusalem, or at least in the kingdom of Judah.

The internal evidence, however, points to the reign of Joash while the high priest Jehoida ruled. Gleason Archer notes the following:

1. The type of government implied by these prophetic utterances best accords with a regency. According to 2 Kings 11:4, the facts fit the context of the book.
2. There is distinct evidence of borrowing, as between Amos and Joel. Phrases such as "the mountains will drip with sweet wine" occur in both Joel 3:18 and Amos 9:13.
3. The list of Judah's enemies focuses on the Phonecians, Philistines, Egyptians and Edomites, not the Babylonians or the Assyrians.

Thus, Joel should be dated to near the end of the 9th Century BC, perhaps in the period of 825 – 811 BC.

Language Style

Joel was a highly literate author, employing a variety of techniques to make his point. He uses figures of speech including metaphors and similes, poetry, repetition and contrast with effect. Joel often changes the persons of pronouns and verbs in order to better make his point and to keep the attention of his readers.

Place in the Canon

Joel, like all the "minor prophets" of the Christian canon, has been retained as Scripture through the Church age. In the Hebrew Scriptures, Joel is located in the "Book of the Twelve" as a single scroll which includes all twelve of these, the final books of the Old Testament. Within the Hebrew canon, the Book of the Twelve is located in the second division known as "The Prophets" and follows immediately behind Ezekiel. The Christian canon maintained the minor prophets in the same order as found in the Hebrew Bible; namely Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi.

Theme

The theme of Joel is the "great and awesome" day of the Lord. Beginning with a destruction of locusts in his day, he extrapolates that as a symbolic event warning of the day of judgment on the nations. The main purposes of Joel are:

1. to foretell the coming judgments on Judah for their sin;
2. to exhort Judah to turn their hearts toward God; and
3. to impress upon all people that this world's history will culminate in the events of the Day of the Lord, when the scales of justice will finally rest.

The phrase "Day of the Lord" appears five times in the book; always referring to the time of the end and never the advent of the Messiah. In the New Testament, the authors always use the same term as a future event and in all cases, it is seen as a purging of evil before the reign of righteousness.

An Outline of Joel

A. A Preview to Tribulation – Joel 1:1 – 1:20
1. An Invasion of Locusts – Joel 1:1 – 1:12
2. A Call to Repentance – Joel 1:13 – 1:20

B. Future Tribulation – Joel 2:1 – 2:32
1. The Locusts Are a Warning – Joel 2:1 – 2:11
2. Repent! – Joel 2:12 – 2:17
3. God's Blessings – Joel 2:18 – 2:27
4. The Day of the Lord – Joel 2:28 – 2:32

C. The Millennium – Joel 3:1 – 3:21
1. The Judgment of the Nations – Joel 3:1 – 3:15
2. Blessings for Israel – Joel 3:16 – 3:21

Why Five Stones?

Most of us are familiar with the Old Testament account of the young man David versus the Philistine giant Goliath. For those who are not, the story is told in 1 Samuel 17. As the account is most often taught, it is a matter of young David having faith in his God to defeat the enemies of Israel. David chose to meet Goliath in battle and as he went, the story reads as follows:

And David said to Saul, “Let no man’s heart fail because of him. Your servant will go and fight with this Philistine.” And Saul said to David, “You are not able to go against this Philistine to fight with him, for you are but a youth, and he has been a man of war from his youth.” But David said to Saul, “Your servant used to keep sheep for his father. And when there came a lion, or a bear, and took a lamb from the flock, I went after him and struck him and delivered it out of his mouth. And if he arose against me, I caught him by his beard and struck him and killed him. Your servant has struck down both lions and bears, and this uncircumcised Philistine shall be like one of them, for he has defied the armies of the living God.” And David said, “The LORD who delivered me from the paw of the lion and from the paw of the bear will deliver me from the hand of this Philistine.” And Saul said to David, “Go, and the LORD be with you!” Then Saul clothed David with his armor. He put a helmet of bronze on his head and clothed him with a coat of mail, and David strapped his sword over his armor. And he tried in vain to go, for he had not tested them. Then David said to Saul, “I cannot go with these, for I have not tested them.” So David put them off. Then he took his staff in his hand and chose five smooth stones from the brook and put them in his shepherd’s pouch. His sling was in his hand, and he approached the Philistine. (1 Samuel 17:32-40)

So why did David place five stones in his bag? Was he afraid he'd miss? Would it take more than one stone to do the job? Would he even have time to reload and get off another shot before Goliath caught David with his spear - the one that was like a weaver's beam and weighed 15 pounds or more?

I don't think any of these questions can be answered affirmatively. There is another account in the Bible that tells of a group of infantry (or would slingers be the artillery of 1000 BC?) who were excellent shots:

And the people of Benjamin mustered out of their cities on that day 26,000 men who drew the sword, besides the inhabitants of Gibeah, who mustered 700 chosen men. Among all these were 700 chosen men who were left-handed; every one could sling a stone at a hair and not miss. (Judges 20:15-16, italics mine)

Although this passage doesn't tell us the range at which they would "not miss" it is clear that the ancient warriors were quite proficient at slinging stones at the bad guys. David, too, was proficient as is noted in 1 Samuel 17:34-35.

So why five stones? If we look further into the Scriptures, we find later that there were four other giants of the Philistines: Ishbi-benob (2 Samuel 21:16); Saph (2 Samuel 21:18); Lahmi the brother of Goliath (1 Chronicles 20:5); and a man of great stature, who had six fingers on each hand, and six toes on each foot (2 Samuel 20:20); "these four were descended from the giants in Gath, and they fell by the hand of David and by the hand of his servants" (2 Samuel 21:22). The complete account is found in 2 Samuel 21:15-22 and 1 Chronicles 20:4-8.

So, I think that David knew that there were five giants in the Philistine army although he only met Goliath that day in the Valley of Elah. The five stones were not a lack of faith, but an admission that there may be additional enemies to slay and David's preparation for what may have been in store.

What's in a Name?

In this morning's reading, I was reminded of how important names are to all of us, and particularly as they are used in the Scriptures. We all get tired of being simply a number; being identified by a computer generated social security number, a driver's license number, your preferred customer number, etc.

In the Bible, no one had yet determined that you could place everyone in a computerized database with a unique identifying sequence of digits. Instead, we read of "Joshua the son of Nun and Caleb the son of Jephunneh" (Numbers 14:38) or "Eleazar the priest" (Numbers 26:3) or even "Bathsheba, the daughter of Eliam, the wife of Uriah the Hittite" (2 Samuel 11:3). But if we study the names a little more carefully, we find that the names and places are more than filler. They can tell us much about the interaction of the people and possibly the motives behind their actions.
And David sent and inquired about the woman. And one said, “Is not this Bathsheba, the daughter of Eliam, the wife of Uriah the Hittite?”

Take for instance, Ahithophel. We find in 2 Samuel 15:12 that Ahithophel was a counselor to David. And not only was he a counselor to the king (1 Chronicles 27:33), but that his advice was highly regarded by both David and his son Absalom. 2 Samuel 16:23 reads, "the counsel that Ahithophel gave was as if one consulted the word of God; so was all the counsel of Ahithophel esteemed, both by David and by Absalom."

So, why then would a trusted counselor to King David participate in Absalom's rebellion? Although the Scriptures are not explicit in this regard, a study of Ahithophel will provide us with some clues. When we do a search for every occurrence of "Ahithophel" in the Old Testament, we find his name 20 times in 17 verses. These are:

2 Samuel 15:12
2 Samuel 15:31
2 Samuel 15:34
2 Samuel 16:15
2 Samuel 16:20
2 Samuel 16:21
2 Samuel 16:23
2 Samuel 17:1
2 Samuel 17:6
2 Samuel 17:7
2 Samuel 17:14
2 Samuel 17:15
2 Samuel 17:21
2 Samuel 17:23
2 Samuel 23:34
1 Chronicles 27:33
1 Chronicles 27:34

All of these references seem rather nondescript, particularly the list of David's mighty men found in 2 Samuel 23:8-39. But, not the reference to Ahithophel in verse 34. He was the father of one of David's mighty men, Eliam. As it turns out, Eliam is only listed here in this passage and in 2 Samuel 11:3 where, as noted above, we find that he is the father of Bathsheba.

So is it a coincidence that Ahithophel turned against the king who had an adulterous relationship with his granddaughter or that this connection may be made only with two brief references to Eliam? You decide. As for me, this only reinforces that God has placed in His Word, exactly what He wants us to know.

The Forty-Day Challenge, New Testament Edition

A couple of months ago, I was trying to decide whether I would go with the flow and take a summer teaching break along with the rest of the church and was evaluating options for our class. As I thought of various ideas, one that struck me as important was the need for all of us to stay connected to the Word of God. Not a daily reading and devotion that may take 15 or 20 minutes a day (that's what the daily reading program on this blog should take), but a deliberate plan to read through the entire Bible during the summer months. In all, reading the Bible should take about 80 hours (my audio version of the NIV plays for 77 hours). So, by establishing a plan to read the entire Bible in 80 days seemed to be a reasonable goal.

However, for many of us, one hour seems to be difficult find each day, so I developed the "Forty-Day Challenge, New Testament Edition." The "Forty-Day Challenge, New Testament Edition" is designed to get individuals into the habit of daily Bible reading in only 30 minutes each day. It has been said that if you do something for 28 days in a row, it will become a habit. I'm hoping and praying that that is the case for you. But more than that, the Forty-Day Challenge is also designed to acquaint you with the New Testament. There are no requirements for deep study; no hard questions to answer; no deep theological puzzles to solve. Just read the New Testament to start a habit and become acquainted with the nine authors of the New Testament and their writings. We won't jump around and we won't try to keep all the writings of one author together or put the Bible in chronological order.

By using the "Forty-Day Challenge" blog (40-daynt.blogspot.com), it should all be very easy. Open your browser; connect to 40-daynt.blogspot.com; and select the post for the current day of the program. There, I've provided a brief introduction to each day's reading and a hyperlink to the daily passage, but otherwise there will be no devotional content, no Q&A, no evaluation of the reading. My plan is to let the Scriptures speak for themselves. However, if you do have a question, I want to try to get you an answer. Respond to the daily reading in the comment section and I'll respond as soon as possible and to the best of my ability. For now the sessions will be moderated (which means that I need to read them before they are posted as a comment), but I may change my mind as this program develops and permit unmoderated comments.

The daily link connects to the ESV Bible Online, this is the recently published English Standard Version, and will open the complete reading for the day. You may choose to read right there on-screen, print the daily content, listen online (there's a button on the page), or simply determine the reading and read from your own favorite version. If you want a different online version, go to www.biblegateway.com (there's a link on the page) and enter the version and passage in the appropriate locations and you're on your way.

The Apostle John pronounced a blessing on those who read and study the book of Revelation:

"Blessed is the one who reads aloud the words of this prophecy, and blessed are those who hear, and who keep what is written in it, for the time is near." (Revelation 1:3)

This blessing is available to all who read and study the Word of God and I'm sure that you will be blessed by taking up this challenge and completing the program.

A Question of Race, Part II

In my previous post, A Question of Race, Part I, I concluded that there is but one race; the human race. Now we must ask, "Why, if there is only one race, then what is all the fuss in Scripture between the Jews and the Gentiles?" If we look closely at the Scriptures, we can see that God created four classes of intelligent beings in His universe which include angels, Gentiles, Jews and Christians. I want to be careful to make the distinction between class and race. Obviously angels are a different species than mankind, but they are here classified along with the "intelligent beings." In the history of mankind, from Adam to Abraham there was only one class of people. However, with the call of Abraham, there became a second class of people, the Jews. Then, following the first advent of Christ, a third class, that of Christian came into being. Interestingly, each of the first three classes of beings continue to be both the class and species as they were created, excepting that by the grace of God, individual Jews and Gentiles both may become Christians by faith in Christ. One may argue here that Paul objects to the idea that one remains a Jew or Gentile when he receives Christ by faith on the basis of Galatians 3:28 which reads, "There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus."

But if one doesn't remain a Jew or Gentile (Greek) when he becomes a Christian, then in this sentence of Paul's, one would also lose his or her gender ("neither male nor female"), or his condition as a freedman or slave (but see Ephesians 6:5, Colossians 3:22, Colossians 4:1, 1 Timothy 6:1, and Titus 2:9). But Paul doesn't proclaim freedom to the captives, that is the purview of Christ. Paul exhorts slaves to obey "with a sincere heart" and masters to treat their slaves with justice and fairness. Therefore, I conclude that just because one becomes a Christian, he does not leave the class he was in before his conversion. Thus there may be Christian Jews and Christian Gentiles, although the latter is implied by the term Christian.

Jews

Jews are all the people who are descendants of the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Noting that he was the father of Ishmael and six other sons in addition to Isaac (Genesis 25:1-2), it is not sufficient simply to be a descendant of Abraham to be counted a Jew. Neither is being a descendant of Isaac what defines one as a Jew because his son Esau became the patriarch of the Edomites. One must be a descendant of Jacob, the third man after Abraham and Isaac, who received the confirmation of the Abrahamic Covenant.

The Jews are a people set aside by God as a special people. According to Paul, it is to the Jews that:

. . . belong the adoption, the glory, the covenants, the giving of the law, the worship, and the promises. To them belong the patriarchs, and from their race, according to the flesh, is the Christ who is God over all, blessed forever. Amen. (Romans 9:4-5)

The Jews were chosen by God to be a people set apart and to them was given the covenant of circumcision, the Law, and the priesthood. It is these distinctions that must be made in order to fully appreciate the seed, land and blessing aspects of the Abrahamic Covenant, and that these promises are made to a specific people; a specific family. (The word translated as race in the ESV is actually the Greek word os, which is a relative pronoun meaning "which" or "who.")

According to the Scriptures, the Jewishness of an individual is based on his ancestry through his father. Thus, we see that all the genealogies in the Old Testament, and those of Jesus in the New Testament, are given through the men rather than the women. Otherwise, David would not have been a Jew because of both Rahab and Ruth in his ancestral line.

The word Jew is a derivative of the Hebrew word yehudi which may be translated as "belonging to Judah," "Judahite," or "Jewish."

Gentiles

Gentiles had their origin with Adam and participated with him in the fall. Paul tells us that before Christ, Gentiles were:

. . . separated from Christ, alienated from the commonwealth of Israel and strangers to the covenants of promise, having no hope and without God in the world. (Ephesians 2:12)

Throughout Scripture, God has revealed that this class of men is separate from other classes, not participating with the covenants and promises to Israel, nor participating in the heavenly blessing promised to believers in Christ. The door, however, has been opened to Gentiles (designated as "the nations" throughout much of Scripture) as well as Jews who believe so that they may become partakers in Christ and out of "the nations" God is calling His elect, the church. Yet these people are still Gentiles. There is nothing a Gentile can do to change that. He may convert to the religion of the Jews but he can never become a Jew since he is not descended from Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.

Christians

As a title for those who are saved. the word "Christian" appears only three times in the Bible; in Acts 11:26, Acts 26:28 and in 1 Peter 4:16. This term was apparently coined by Gentiles since "Christ" suggests the recognition that Jesus was the anointed Messiah of God (Both the Hebrew word mashiach and the Greek word christos mean "anointed"). In fact, the terms brethren, saints, disciples and believers hold precedence among the writers of the New Testament for the same class of people. Similarly, the Jews referred to Christians in derogatory terms as Nazarines, in reference to Jesus of Nazareth (cf. John 1:46, Acts 24:5).

Yet it is not the title which makes one a Christian. Often the fact that one is a citizen of a so-called Christian country is sufficient to give him the title of Christian in today's world. This may be seen in the Holy Land itself, where people seem to be classified as Jews, Arabs and Christians. In this context, one that is neither Jew or Arab (Arabs, by the way are Gentiles) is considered to be a Christian. However, the reality is that only a saving faith in Jesus Christ can transform a Gentile or Jew into a Christian.

Paul tells us in Ephesians that:

. . . by grace you have been saved through faith. And this is not your own doing; it is the gift of God, not a result of works, so that no one may boast. (Ephesians 2:8-9)

In the New Testament, the words "believe" and "faith" are used synonymously. The writer of Hebrews tells us that "faith is the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not seen" (Hebrews 11:1). By this he means that faith includes the conviction that God is trustworthy and that He will complete that work that He has started, and that faith is the blessed hope of all who believe the promises of God. Religious faith may be defined as "belief of the truth on the testimony of God. It includes, (1) knowledge; (2) assent; (3) trust." This three-part definition captures the essence of belief. We must not only know, but must assent to the truth and trust the One who is ever faithful.

You believe that God is one; you do well. Even the demons believe—and shudder! (James 2:19)

To be a saving faith all three elements must be present; knowledge, assent, and trust. Look to the words of the Apostle Paul in his letter to the Romans:

Now we know that whatever the law says it speaks to those who are under the law, so that every mouth may be stopped, and the whole world may be held accountable to God. For by works of the law no human being will be justified in his sight, since through the law comes knowledge of sin. (Romans 3:19-20)

and

. . . if you confess with your mouth that Jesus is Lord and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. For with the heart one believes and is justified, and with the mouth one confesses and is saved. (Romans 10:9-10)

In these two passages we see all three elements of faith: knowledge, or the consciousness of sin; assent that Jesus died and was raised from the dead; and trust in the confession or acknowledgement that Jesus is the Savior.

Conclusion

There are very specific elements to Christian faith as just discussed. However, not one of these elements implies that one gives up the particular traits that make him a Jew or Gentile, male or female, slave or free. These remain as before, but there is within a new creation (2 Corinthians 5:17). Thus, although there is only the human race, there remain three classes of people in the world: Jew, Gentile and Christian.

Internet-Based Bible Search Tools

As I published my last post, A Question of Race, Part I, I realized that the references that I make to the different versions of the Bible and the number of occurrences of any given word in any given version may intimidate some of my readers or cause you to ask, "How does he do that?" However, many of the tools I use are available to you. For instance, there are two links at the very bottom of this page that allow you to type in a word or phrase and get the same result.

BibleGateway.com

The top link is to BibleGateway.com, which, in their own words:

The Bible Gateway is a tool for reading and researching scripture online -- all in the language or translation of your choice! It provides advanced searching capabilities, which allow readers to find and compare particular passages in scripture based on keywords, phrases, or scripture reference.

To use the Bible Gateway link at the bottom of this page just follow these simple instructions:

1. Scroll down to the bottom of the page.
2. Click in the search box and type the word you are looking for. Your screen should look like this:


3. Click the "Search BibleGateway.com" button.

Your browser will then connect to BibleGateway.com with your search results and will look something like this:


On this page you may then change the Bible version you want to search by clicking in the "your default version:" box and scrolling to select the version you want. Now click on the "change" button.



SearchGodsWord.org

A similar tool is available at another web site, SearchGodsWord.org. Their mission in their words:

SearchGodsWord.org has been built to be a simple but powerful study site. However, there is still a need for help. Contained here is information on various resources and how to derive the greatest benefit from their use.

This link is also found at the bottom of the page and is very similar in execution.

1. Scroll down to the bottom of the page.
2. Click in the search box and type the word you are looking for. Your screen should look like this:


3. You may select a search of the whole Bible or some smaller section of the Scriptures like Paul's Letters (Pauline Epistles) in the second box.
4. SearchGodsWord.org gives you the ability to select a version here before you search. This screen looks like this:


5. Click the "Search" button.

Your browser will then connect to SearchGodsWord.org with your search results and will look something like this:


Just like on the BibleGateway.com page, you may then change the Bible version you want to search by clicking in the "using:" box and scrolling to select the version you want. Now click on the "search" button.

For strictly Bible word searches, the BibleGateway.com page includes a number of Bible versions not found at SearchGodsWord.org; however, SearchGodsWord.org has some great tools not found at BibleGateway.com. You'll find that there is no one tool that will benefit every aspect of your Bible study, but there are a lot of free internet tools available to help you along. Give it a try for yourself. I think you'll find it to be quick and easy.

A Question of Race, Part I

Today there was a question in regard to race. The question is, "How many races are there?" In my search I find the word race in the ESV only ten times. In six of those, the reference is to speed or a contest of speed and are irrelevant to the question:

Again I saw that under the sun the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, nor bread to the wise, nor riches to the intelligent, nor favor to those with knowledge, but time and chance happen to them all. (Ecclesiastes 9:11)

If you have raced with men on foot, and they have wearied you, how will you compete with horses? And if in a safe land you are so trusting, what will you do in the thicket of the Jordan? (Jeremiah 12:5)

The chariots race madly through the streets; they rush to and fro through the squares; they gleam like torches; they dart like lightning. (Nahum 2:4)

Do you not know that in a race all the runners compete, but only one receives the prize? So run that you may obtain it. (1 Corinthians 9:24)

I have fought the good fight, I have finished the race, I have kept the faith. (2 Timothy 4:7)

Therefore, since we are surrounded by so great a cloud of witnesses, let us also lay aside every weight, and sin which clings so closely, and let us run with endurance the race that is set before us. . . (Hebrews 12:1)

But in four instances, the term is used of the Jewish people:

For they have taken some of their daughters to be wives for themselves and for their sons, so that the holy race has mixed itself with the peoples of the lands. And in this faithlessness the hand of the officials and chief men has been foremost. (Ezra 9:2)

He dealt shrewdly with our race and forced our fathers to expose their infants, so that they would not be kept alive. (Acts 7:19)

To them belong the patriarchs, and from their race, according to the flesh, is the Christ who is God over all, blessed forever. Amen. (Romans 9:5)

But you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for his own possession, that you may proclaim the excellencies of him who called you out of darkness into his marvelous light (1 Peter 2:9)

Some may argue that this last reference is in regard to the Church, but a plain reading of the salutation of Peter's letter suggests otherwise. Peter writes, "Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, To those who are elect exiles of the dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia, according to the foreknowledge of God the Father, in the sanctification of the Spirit, for obedience to Jesus Christ and for sprinkling with his blood: May grace and peace be multiplied to you" (1 Peter 1:1-2). This phrase, "exiles of the dispersion" is clearly in reference to the diaspora, or the Jews scattered throughout Asia Minor. So then, based on the ESV, every reference to race as a people in the Bible is in reference to the Jews.

For the sake of completeness, I should note that the KJV uses race only four times and only in reference to a contest; the NIV eleven times, two of which are in reference to a group of people (Ezra 9:2, Romans 9:3); the NASB eleven times, six of which are in reference to a group of people and include the Jews (Ezra 9:2, Acts 7:19, 1 Peter 2:9), the Philistines (Zechariah 9:6), the Syrophoenician (Mark 7:26) and all humanity (James 3:7); and the HCSB twenty-nine times, most of which are in reference to the "human race" except Acts 7:19, Acts 13:26 and 1 Peter 2:9.

Is there a way to determine how the Bible intends for us to understand race?

The Hebrew word translated as race in Ezra 9:2 is zera`, a singular noun used 230 times in the Old Testament. Zera` is variously translated as seed, offspring, descendants, posterity and just this once as race. The corresponding Greek word from the Septuagint (LXX) is sperma, which carries a collective meaning similar to zera`. In two of the three New Testament references, race is used to translate the Greek word genos which according to the Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament means "of common ancestry, posterity, descendant, family." Thus all these words, the Hebrew zera` and the Greek sperma and genos all relate to a common ancestry (or posterity, depending on which way you are looking).

So then, is the Bible completely blind to race?

In short, this looks to be the case. It is clear that we are all descendants of Adam, and in Adam we find our sinful nature; but we also are all descendants of Noah. All of one seed who separated into the various nations and populated the continents in Genesis 10:1-32. Paul claimed a common ancestry of all mankind when he said to the men of the Aeropagus:

The God who made the world and everything in it, being Lord of heaven and earth, does not live in temples made by man, nor is he served by human hands, as though he needed anything, since he himself gives to all mankind life and breath and everything. And he made from one man every nation of mankind to live on all the face of the earth, having determined allotted periods and the boundaries of their dwelling place, that they should seek God, in the hope that they might feel their way toward him and find him. Yet he is actually not far from each one of us, for "In him we live and move and have our being;" as even some of your own poets have said, "For we are indeed his offspring (genos)." (Acts 17:24-28)

My conclusion? There's only one race and that's the human race.

This discussion continues in the post, A Question of Race, Part II.

Hosea and His Unfaithful Wife

In the opening verses of the prophecy of Hosea, he is instructed by God to "take to yourself a wife of whoredom" (Hosea 1:2, ESV). As a result, Hosea marries Gomer. One of the questions that came up in regard to this passage was whether Gomer was actually a prostitute or whether she was simply unfaithful.

The word translated as "whoredom" in the ESV (also KJV) is variously translated as "harlotry" (NASB, NKJV), "adulterous" (NIV), "prostitute" (NET, NLT), and "promiscuous" (HCSB). The Hebrew word is based on the noun zona which according to Holladay's A Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament means "someone practicing prostitution either occasionally or professionally." Not all lexicographers, however, agree that the word is necessarily intended to mean "prostitution." Gesenius' Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures (c. 1812) suggests that the word may be taken as "fornication" or "adultery" although the Hebrew word na'ap is used of adultery in the seventh of the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:14). The Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament suggests that na'ap is never used of the professional prostitute, but is used of an adulterous married woman (Leviticus 20:10, Ezekiel 16:32-36, Hosea 3:1, Hosea 3:3). In the story of Judah and his daughter-in-law Tamar (Genesis 38:6-26), it is clear that she poses as a prostitute, exchanging sexual favors for a fee, and the Hebrew word used there is zona.

The Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Old Testament, is not much help here. It uses the word porneias (think "pornography") which the Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament notes may be interpreted as "every kind of extramarital, unlawful, or unnatural sexual intercourse; fornication, sexual immorality, prostitution." The New Testament never uses porneias of adultery, but of fornication, immorality and other sexual sin; even in cases where there is a direct quote of the Old Testament such as Mark 10:19, Romans 13:9 or James 2:11.

So, although there is no clear consensus as to whether Gomer was a prostitute or not it seems reasonable to me that she was. Had she simply been an adulterous married woman, it would have been impossible for Hosea to marry her without her first getting a divorce. But Mosaic Law would have demanded that she and her lover be stoned (Leviticus 20:10) rather than allowed to divorce and remarry.

Introduction to Hosea

Hosea (which means salvation) was a prophet of the Kingdom of Judah who God used to teach the nation about the consequences of unfaithfulness. He was instructed by God to marry a prostitute as an example of the relationship between Israel and Yahweh. Like the major prophets, Hosea introduces his prophetic statements with the phrase "the word of the Lord came," "the Lord said," or "listen to the word of the Lord." The final verse reads:

Whoever is wise, let him understand these things; whoever is discerning, let him know them; for the ways of the LORD are right, and the upright walk in them, but transgressors stumble in them. (Hosea 14:9)

Author

Hosea was a prophet of Israel who tells us in the very first verse both his father and those kings who were contemporary with his message:

The word of the LORD that came to Hosea, the son of Beeri, in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel. (Hosea 1:1)

Although we know little of Hosea's life prior to his writing, one could conclude that his family was agricultural because of the settings he used in his illustrations.

Date

In the opening verse Hosea tells us of the time of his message, listing the kings who reigned over both Judah and Israel during his ministry:

The word of the LORD that came to Hosea, the son of Beeri, in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel. (Hosea 1:1)

Based on this, the messages of the book of Hosea must have been delivered from approximately 755 - 712 BC, and were likely compiled into a single volume near the end of his ministry. It has been suggested that the book was compiled prior to the Assyrian Captivity of 722 BC since there is no mention of that judgment having come to pass. Gleason Archer suggests a date of 722 BC.

Language Style

Hosea is a prose narrative book which begins as a biographical record of Hosea and his unfaithful wife. This information serves as an introduction to, and a symbol of the prophecies in the later chapters of the book.

Place in the Canon

Hosea, like all the "minor prophets" of the Christian canon, has been retained as Scripture through the Church age. In the Hebrew Scriptures, Hosea is located in the "Book of the Twelve" as a single scroll which includes all twelve of these, the final books of the Old Testament. Within the Hebrew canon, the Book of the Twelve is located in the second division known as "The Prophets" and follows immediately behind Ezekiel. The Christian canon maintained the minor prophets in the same order as found in the Hebrew Bible; namely Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi.

Theme

The theme of the book of Hosea is the unfaithfulness of the people of Israel. In order to make the clearest presentation to the people, God had Hosea marry a prostitute and used this relationship as a figure of the relationship between Israel and God.

When the LORD first spoke through Hosea, the LORD said to Hosea, “Go, take to yourself a wife of whoredom and have children of whoredom, for the land commits great whoredom by forsaking the LORD.” (Hosea 1:2)

This is shown as related to Israel in Chapter 4:

Hear the word of the LORD, O children of Israel, for the LORD has a controversy with the inhabitants of the land. There is no faithfulness or steadfast love, and no knowledge of God in the land; there is swearing, lying, murder, stealing, and committing adultery; they break all bounds, and bloodshed follows bloodshed. (Hosea 4:1-2)

Yet God promises restoration; again demonstrated in the lives of Hosea and Gomer:

And the LORD said to me, “Go again, love a woman who is loved by another man and is an adulteress, even as the LORD loves the children of Israel, though they turn to other gods and love cakes of raisins.” (Hosea 3:1)

This is applied to Israel later:

Return, O Israel, to the LORD your God, for you have stumbled because of your iniquity. Take with you words and return to the LORD; say to him, “Take away all iniquity; accept what is good, and we will pay with bulls the vows of our lips. . . . I will heal their apostasy; I will love them freely, for my anger has turned from them. I will be like the dew to Israel; he shall blossom like the lily; he shall take root like the trees of Lebanon; his shoots shall spread out; his beauty shall be like the olive, and his fragrance like Lebanon. (Hosea 14:1-2; 4-6)

Critical Issues

The primary complaint against Hosea is God's command to the prophet to marry an adulterous woman. Because of the prevailing opinion that God would not have a holy man marry a woman like Gomer, many have attempted to allegorize the first part of the book. Others, however, tend to the declaration that Gomer was not immoral prior to her marriage, but became so afterward. Leon Wood, as pointed out by Gleason Archer notes that the phrase "wife of harlotry" would mean "a woman of adulterous character" rather than a prostitute which would be rendered by the word, zona. Wood notes that in order to well represent the character of Israel, Gomer would not have been an adulterous woman at the time of her wedding, just as at the time of the exodus, Israel was in a meaningful covenant relationship with God. It is also noted that Gomer's first child, Jezreel, is explicitly stated as being fathered by Hosea, whereas Lo-Ruhamah and Lo-Ammi have no such statement. Thus the second and third children may be the result of Gomer's adultery.

Thus, the argument is that since the book is given in a direct autobiographical narrative, without even a hint at being a parable or allegory; the direct statements in regard to the children of Gomer; the fact of God's command to Hosea; and the mirror image of Hosea's marriage seen in the character of Israel, one must consider the book as divinely inspired.

Background Reading

2 Kings 15:1 – 2 Kings 20:21
2 Chronicles 26:1 – 32:33
Isaiah 36:1 – 39:8

Outline of Hosea

A. Unfaithful Wife, Faithful Husband – Hosea 1:1 – 3:5
1. Take an Adulterous Wife – Hosea 1:1 – 2:1
2. The Punishment and Restoration of Gomer (Israel) – Hosea 2:2 – 2:23
3. Hosea's Reconciliation with Gomer – Hosea 3:1 – 3:5

B. Unfaithful Nation, Faithful God – Hosea 4:1 – 14:9
1. The Unfaithfulness of Israel – Hosea 4:1 – 4:19
2. The Judgment of Israel – Hosea 5:1 – 5:15
3. Israel Does Not Turn – Hosea 6:1 – 7:16
4. Israel Will Receive Her Reward – Hosea 8:1 – 8:14
5. Israel's Punishment – Hosea 9:1 – 10:15
6. God Remains Faithful – Hosea 11:1 – 11:11
7. Israel's Sin – Hosea 11:12 – 12:14
8. God's Anger Against Israel – Hosea 13:1 – 13:16
9. Repentance Will Bring Blessing – Hosea 14:1 – 14:9

Jehoshaphat Makes Peace With Ahab

From the time of the rebellion of the Northern Tribes, the divided kingdom had been at war. But in the book of 2 Chronicles, we see that by the third year of Jehoshaphat's reign (c. 869 BC) Judah was at peace with all her neighbors (2 Chronicles 17:10). It is implied in the book of 1 Kings that this period of peace extended to the Northern Kingdom because it was during the reigns of Ahab, King of Israel and Jehoshaphat, King of Judah, that a bit of an alliance was made. 1 Kings 22:1-12 provides the account of the two nations allying against Syria, presumably through the marriage of Jehoshaphat's son Jehoram to Ahab's daughter Athaliah (2 Chronicles 18:1, cf. 2 Kings 8:25-26).

The following chart depicts the result of the marriage of the godly family of Jehoshaphat to the unrighteous family of Ahab:


The following references may be helpful in reconstructing this family tree:

1. Jehoshaphat made an alliance of marriage with Ahab (2 Chronicles 18:1)
2. Jehoram was the son of Jehoshaphat (2 Kings 8:24)
3. Jehoram murdered his six brothers (2 Chronicles 21:4)
4. Athaliah is the granddaughter of Omri (2 Kings 8:26)
5. Athaliah was married to Jehoram (2 Kings 8:25-26; 2 Kings 11:3)
6. Ahaziah was the son of Jehoram (2 Chronicles 22:1)
7. Ahaziah was the grandson of Jehoshaphat (2 Chronicles 22:9)
8. Athaliah was the mother of Ahaziah (2 Kings 11:1; 2 Chronicles 22:2)
9. Upon Ahaziah's death, Athaliah attempted to murder all her grandchildren (2 Kings 11:1)
10. Upon Ahaziah's death, Athaliah claimed the throne of Judah (2 Kings 11:3; 2 Chronicles 22:12)
11. Joash was rescued by his aunt and thus saved the royal line of David (2 Kings 11:2)
12. Athaliah was deposed when Joash was seven years old (2 Chronicles 23:1 - 2 Chronicles 24:1)

The Writing Prophets

Below is the class handout I had on the writing prophets. This chart includes Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel in addition to the twelve Minor Prophets. Click on the image and it will open in a new window.

Kings of Judah

This past week, I distributed two worksheets listing the kings of Israel and Judah. This is the worksheet for the Kings of Judah (click on the image and it will open in a new window):

Kings of Israel

This past week, I distributed two worksheets listing the kings of Israel and Judah. This is the worksheet for the Kings of Israel (click on the image and it will open in a new window):

Jeroboam I

Beginning in 1 Kings 12, we find the story of civil strife and a succession from the monarchy of Israel the Northern Kingdom (1 Kings 12:16-20; see also Rehoboam); a division that caused greater dissension and apostasy than ever before. Jeroboam was made king over Israel and led that nation into sin through idol worship, illegitimate priests, false sacrifice and replacement feasts (1 Kings 12:25-33). These false feasts were established as alternatives to the seven festivals and holy days specified by God in Leviticus 23 to keep the people away from Jerusalem so as to prevent their re-uniting with Judah.

Although confronted by a prophet from God in regard to his sin (1 Kings 13:1-3), Jeroboam refused to repent and thus the kingdom would be taken from him and his house (1 Kings 14:7-11). These prophecies were fulfilled in 2 Kings 23:15-16 and 1 Kings 15:29, respectively. Jeroboam's evil ways became the measure of the successor kings of the Northern Kingdom until the days of Ahab (1 Kings 15:26; 1 Kings 15:34; 1 Kings 16:18-19; 1 Kings 16:25-26).

Rehoboam

In preparation for our study of the minor prophets, we are investigating the socio-economic, spiritual and political conditions that existed in the history of Israel during the period of the prophets. We know that Israel was permitted to leave (actually they were run out of the country by Pharaoh – Exodus 12:29-32) following the tenth plague, spent 40 years in the desert, and finally entered the Promised Land in about 1406 BC. After a period of alternating righteous obedience and apostasy, the Jews demanded a king to be set before them in about 1043 BC (1 Samuel 8:1-18; cf. Deuteronomy 17:14-20). The first three kings, Saul, David and Solomon reigned for about 112 years until finally Solomon died and his son Rehoboam ascended to the throne.

Rehoboam was the son of Solomon who ascended the throne of Judah following the death of his father (1 Kings 11:43) when he was 41 years old. The book of Kings tells us that Solomon had placed a heavy burden on the people and that the people sent a delegation, led by Jeroboam, to Rehoboam asking for some relief (1 Kings 12:4). After consulting with both his elders (those who counseled his father Solomon) and his young friends, Rehoboam refused to lighten the burden on the people and continued in the ways of his father (1 Kings 12:13-14).

As a result, a minor insurrection occurred in which the taskmaster over the laborers was killed and Rehoboam escaped with his life back to Jerusalem. Ultimately, the northern tribes seceded from the kingdom and set Jeroboam up as king. Although Rehoboam assembled an army of 180,000 men to march against Jeroboam, the prophet Shemaiah advised against war and Rehoboam relented.

Rehoboam reigned as king for 17 years (1 Kings 14:21) building great and fortified cities in the way of his father (2 Chronicles 11:5-12). During his reign, he led the people in sin; worshipping Asherah on the high places, employing male cult prostitutes and all the other abominations of the Canaanite nations who had lived in the land before them (1 Kings 14:22-24). Like Solomon, he too had multiple wives and concubines; 78 in all with whom he had 28 sons and 60 daughters (2 Chronicles 11:21).

In his fifth year (c. 925 BC) Shishak, king of Egypt came against Jerusalem because of his sin (2 Chronicles 12:5) and Rehoboam paid tribute to him in the way of the temple treasures and Solomon's wealth.

Recommended Pre-Reading for the Minor Prophets

In order to set the stage for our study of the Minor Prophets, it will be beneficial to understand the socio-economic, spiritual and political conditions extant at the time of the prophets' ministries. This includes not only the so-called minor prophets, but also the ministries of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel as well.

Below, you will find a daily reading calendar (complete with hyperlinks to the ESV Bible online) that will take you through the historical record of the Divided Kingdom as told in the two books of Kings in two weeks.

Sunday, March 16, 2008 1 Kings 12:1-14:18
Monday, March 17, 2008 1 Kings 14:19-16:28
Tuesday, March 18, 2008 1 Kings 16:29-18:46
Wednesday, March 19, 2008 1 Kings 19:1-21:16
Thursday, March 20, 2008 1 Kings 21:17-2 Kings 1:18
Friday, March 21, 2008 2 Kings 2:1-4:17
Saturday, March 22, 2008 2 Kings 4:18-6:23
Sunday, March 23, 2008 2 Kings 6:24-9:13
Monday, March 24, 2008 2 Kings 9:14-11:20
Tuesday, March 25, 2008 2 Kings 11:21-15:7
Wednesday, March 26, 2008 2 Kings 15:8-17:23
Thursday, March 27, 2008 2 Kings 17:24-19:19
Friday, March 28, 2008 2 Kings 19:20-22:20
Saturday, March 29, 2008 2 Kings 23:1-25:30

For additional reading, you may want to reference the parallel passages in the Chronicles, or perhaps you would be interested in reading the chapters on the period of the divided kingdom through the return from Babylon in the following:

Kaiser, Walter C. Jr. A History of Israel From the Bronze Age Through the Jewish Wars.

Merrill, Eugene H. Kingdom of Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel.

Bright, John. A History of Israel.

Introduction to the Minor Prophets

This week we begin a session on the twelve "minor prophets." This title originated sometime in the 4th Century A.D. and refers not to the message of these men, but of the length of their prophecies. Altogether, the minor prophets contain 67 chapters. Thus, when compared to the 66 chapters of Isaiah, the 52 chapters found in Jeremiah and Ezekiel's 48 chapters, the compilation of the twelve minor prophets is of similar length. In fact, the Hebrew Bible was the first to combine these dozen prophecies into a single volume and refers to it simply as the book of the "Twelve Prophets."

Of the twelve, three were prophets of Israel, the Northern Kingdom, sent with specific messages to that kingdom and in the case of Jonah, to Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrian Empire which ultimately conquered Israel. Six of the books are from prophets of Judah with three ministering prior to the Assyrian captivity of Israel and three just before the Babylonian captivity of Judah. The final three prophets were post-exilic prophets; contemporary with Ezra and Nehemiah.

The following table lists each of the twelve prophets in their biblical order along with the dates of their ministries, their target audience, the problems they sought to highlight and the primary message they carried from God. It is not certain why the minor prophets are placed in their specific sequence in the scriptures; being neither alphabetical, chronological, lengthwise, or by their target audience.




The twelve separate books of the minor prophets of the Christian canon, have been retained as Scripture through the Church age and correspond exactly with the order of the single-volume "Book of the Twelve" found in the Hebrew Scriptures. In the Hebrew Bible, this book is on a single scroll which includes all twelve of these, the final books of the Old Testament, perhaps because their combined size would be similar to that of Isaiah.

Within the Hebrew canon, the Book of the Twelve is located in the second division known as "The Prophets" and follows immediately behind Ezekiel. The Christian canon maintained the minor prophets in the same order as found in the Hebrew Bible; namely Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi. The Septuagint (LXX; the Greek translation of the Old Testament), however, orders the books slightly differently: Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi.


HOSEA

Hosea was a prophet of the kingdom of Judah who God used to teach the nation about the consequences of unfaithfulness. He was instructed by God to marry a prostitute as an example of the relationship between Israel and Yahweh. Like the major prophets, Hosea introduces his prophetic statements with the phrase "the word of the Lord came," "the Lord said," or "listen to the word of the Lord."

The messages of the book of Hosea must have been delivered from approximately 755 to 712 B.C., and were likely compiled into a single volume near the end of his ministry. It has been suggested that the book was compiled prior to the Assyrian Captivity of 722 B.C. since there is no mention of that judgment having come to pass.


JOEL

The subject of Joel's prophecy is the "great and awesome" day of the Lord. In this, many of his prophecies take us to the future tribulation period. Throughout the book, Joel introduces his prophecy with "the word of the Lord," "the Lord has spoken," "I am the Lord your God," or a similar phrase that is clearly a reference to the specific and direct word of Yahweh. Joel is often quoted by other biblical writers; the most famous being Peter's quote in Acts 2:17-21 of Joel 2:

"And afterward, I will pour out my Spirit on all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your old men will dream dreams, your young men will see visions. Even on my servants, both men and women, I will pour out my Spirit in those days. I will show wonders in the heavens and on the earth, blood and fire and billows of smoke. The sun will be turned to darkness and the moon to blood before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the LORD. And everyone who calls on the name of the LORD will be saved; for on Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there will be deliverance, as the LORD has said, among the survivors whom the LORD calls." (Joel 2:28-32)

Joel concludes with great hope for the restoration of Israel:

"Judah will be inhabited forever and Jerusalem through all generations. Their bloodguilt, which I have not pardoned, I will pardon." The LORD dwells in Zion! (Joel 3:20-21)

The prophecy of Joel has been dated everywhere from the 9th Century B.C. to the 4th Century B.C., with portions dated as late as 200 B.C. However, the internal evidence points to the reign of Joash while the high priest Jehoida ruled. Gleason Archer notes the following:

1. The type of government implied by these prophetic utterances best accords with a regency. According to 2 Kings 11:4, the facts fit the context of the book.
2. There is distinct evidence of borrowing, as between Amos and Joel. Phrases such as "the mountains will drip with sweet wine" occur in both Joel 3:18 and Amos 9:13.
3. The list of Judah's enemies focuses on the Phonecians, Philistines, Egyptians and Edomites, not the Babylonians or the Assyrians.

Thus, Joel should be dated to near the end of the 9th Century B.C., perhaps in the period from 825 to 811 B.C.


AMOS

Although not a "professional prophet," Amos spoke of the Lord coming against injustice and defending the oppressed. Like other prophets, Amos introduces his words with a reference to "the word of the Lord." For example, in Amos 2:16 he ends with the phrase "declares the LORD." Other examples may be found in Amos 1:3; 3:1; 7:1 and 8:1. The main prophetic promise is found in Chapter 9:

"In that day I will restore David's fallen tent. I will repair its broken places, restore its ruins, and build it as it used to be, so that they may possess the remnant of Edom and all the nations that bear my name," declares the LORD, who will do these things. "The days are coming," declares the LORD, "when the reaper will be overtaken by the plowman and the planter by the one treading grapes. New wine will drip from the mountains and flow from all the hills. I will bring back my exiled people Israel; they will rebuild the ruined cities and live in them. They will plant vineyards and drink their wine; they will make gardens and eat their fruit. I will plant Israel in their own land, never again to be uprooted from the land I have given them," says the LORD your God. (Amos 9:11-15)

It is clear from the text of the book that Amos prophesied during the reign of Amaziah, King of Judah:

Then Amaziah the priest of Bethel sent a message to Jeroboam king of Israel: "Amos is raising a conspiracy against you in the very heart of Israel. The land cannot bear all his words. For this is what Amos is saying: "'Jeroboam will die by the sword, and Israel will surely go into exile, away from their native land.'" (Amos 7:10-11)

It is certain that Amaziah reigned from 796 to 767 B.C. However, Amos gives us another clue in his very first sentence. The prophecy was "two years before the earthquake" during the reign of Uzziah which was remembered for years. Uzziah was king of Judah from 792 to 740 B.C., but was struck with leprosy and forced to live outside the palace for the remainder of his life (2 Kings 15:5). His son Jotham became co-regent from 750 to 740 B.C. It could be argued from this data that the earthquake would have been prior to the co-regency of Jotham, thus Amos would have been written no later than perhaps 752 B.C. Yet parts of the book were written during the reign of Amaziah. Thus, Amos should be dated between 768 and 755 B.C.


OBADIAH

Obadiah is the shortest book of the Old Testament. Nonetheless, the inspiration is attested both internally and by quotes in both Jeremiah and Amos. He begins with the phrase "thus says the LORD," and ends verse 18 with "for the LORD has spoken." The entire book is written to denounce Edom for her treatment of Israel.

The book of Obadiah, although the shortest of the Old Testament prophetic writings, has proven to be one of the most difficult to date. Most scholars tend to attempt the dating of the book by verses 11-14 which read:

On the day you stood aloof while strangers carried off his wealth and foreigners entered his gates and cast lots for Jerusalem, you were like one of them. You should not look down on your brother in the day of his misfortune, nor rejoice over the people of Judah in the day of their destruction, nor boast so much in the day of their trouble. You should not march through the gates of my people in the day of their disaster, nor look down on them in their calamity in the day of their disaster, nor seize their wealth in the day of their disaster. You should not wait at the crossroads to cut down their fugitives, nor hand over their survivors in the day of their trouble. (Obadiah 11-14)

Proponents of an early date claim this passage is in reference to the invasion of Jerusalem by the Philistines and Arabs during the reign of Jehoram between 848 and 841 B.C. Those who support a late date believe that this passage refers to the Babylonian attacks on Jerusalem between 605 and 586 B.C. If, as conservative scholarship has maintained for years, Obadiah was contemporary with Jehoram, the date of his book must have been from 848 to 841 B.C., or some time shortly thereafter.


JONAH

Jonah is that well-known prophet who, when sent to Nineveh to proclaim their sin and to demand repentance, ran the other way – away from God. Three of its four chapters has a reference to "the word of the LORD," "the LORD said," or "God said." Reference may be made to Jonah 1:1; 3:1, 4:4; 4:6; 4:9 and 4:10. It is clear from God's message that the mercy God had on Nineveh was fully in keeping with His revealed attributes shown elsewhere in the Scriptures.

Jonah is mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25 and alluded to in Nahum and Zephaniah; however, the most credible external evidence for the inspiration of the book is from Jesus himself:

He answered, "A wicked and adulterous generation asks for a miraculous sign! But none will be given it except the sign of the prophet Jonah. For as Jonah was three days and three nights in the belly of a huge fish, so the Son of Man will be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth. The men of Nineveh will stand up at the judgment with this generation and condemn it; for they repented at the preaching of Jonah, and now one greater than Jonah is here." (Matthew 12:39-41)

"For as Jonah was a sign to the Ninevites, so also will the Son of Man be to this generation." (Luke 11:30)

Because Jonah was sent to proclaim the word of God to Nineveh, the book must have been written well before the Assyrian conquest of Israel. Jonah is made reference to in 2 Kings 14:25 during the reign of Jereboam II who was king of Israel from 793 to 752 B.C. Jonah is generally dated from 788 to 774 B.C.


MICAH

Micah was a prophet from the late 8th Century B.C. Like the other prophets, Micah often refers to "the word of the Lord" or a similar phrase. See, for example, Micah 1:2; 2:3; 3:5; 4:6; 5:2; 5:10 and 6:3. The priests, in telling Herod where the Messiah was to be born quoted Micah:

"But you, Bethlehem Ephrathah, though you are small among the clans of Judah, out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times." (Micah 5:2)

Jesus, too, quoted from Micah when he commissioned His disciples in Matthew 10:35-36:

For a son dishonors his father, a daughter rises up against her mother, a daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law; a man's enemies are the members of his own household. (Micah 7:6)

Micah may be dated to the middle of the 8th Century B.C. based upon the first verse in the book:

The word of the LORD that came to Micah of Moresheth during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah; the vision he saw concerning Samaria and Jerusalem. (Micah 1:1)

Jotham became king of Judah in about 750 B.C. and Hezekiah reigned until 686 B.C. It is not realistic to claim that Micah's ministry covered the entire 64-year period of these kings, but some overlap between Jotham and Hezekiah, with the bulk of his ministry during the reign of Ahaz from 735 to 715 B.C. Thus, Micah may be dated to the period from 734 to 700 B.C.


NAHUM

Nineveh, the foundation of which was laid by Nimrod, was the last capital of the Assyrian empire. Under the rule of Sennacherib, Assyria was one of the great enemies in Israel's history. Nineveh was located near modern-day Mosul in Iraq, on the east bank of the Tigris River.

In 705 B.C., Sennacherib established Nineveh as the capital of the Assyrian empire. He built a wall around Nineveh that was 40 to 50 feet high. It extended along the Tigris River and around the inner city. The wall had 15 main gates. Each of the gates was guarded by stone bull statues. Both inside and outside the walls, Sennacherib created parks, a botanical garden and a zoo. He built a water-system containing the oldest aqueduct in history and the largest palace of its time.

In 612 B.C., Nabopolassar, the king of Babylon, united the Babylonian army with an army of Medes and Scythians and attacked, looted and destroyed Nineveh as predicted by the prophet Nahum, marking the end of the Assyrian empire and prepared the way for the Neo-Babylonian empire.

Since Nahum refers to the fall of Thebes as a past event (Nahum 3:8 ff) the book must be dated later than 661 B.C. However, as prophecy, it must be dated prior to the fall of Nineveh to Nebuchadnezzar in 612 B.C. Thus, Nahum has historically been dated from 650 to 620 B.C.


HABAKKUK

Habakkuk is described as the "choir director" in Habakkuk 3:19, yet this is about all we know of him. He notes in the opening verse that this is an "oracle" which he saw and then moves to a pair of questions and answers; the questions from the prophet and the answers from God. See Habakkuk 2:2. His questions are centered around the wickedness of Judah; wondering how that wickedness can go unpunished. In response to God's answer, he asks why God would choose an evil nation such as Babylon to chastise Judah. God's answer is simple and direct:

Then the LORD replied: "Write down the revelation and make it plain on tablets so that a herald may run with it. For the revelation awaits an appointed time; it speaks of the end and will not prove false. Though it linger, wait for it; it will certainly come and will not delay. (Habakkuk 2:2-3)

Habakkuk appears to have ministered during the reign of Jehoiakim from 609 to 598 B.C., although a slightly earlier date is possible. The Babylonians are mentioned as a formidable foe and this would not have been the case prior to around 620 to 610 BC:

"Look at the nations and watch; and be utterly amazed. For I am going to do something in your days that you would not believe, even if you were told. I am raising up the Babylonians, that ruthless and impetuous people, who sweep across the whole earth to seize dwelling places not their own. They are a feared and dreaded people; they are a law to themselves and promote their own honor." (Habakkuk 1:5-7)

As a prophecy against Judah, the fulfillment of which came with the conquest of Jerusalem, the book must have been written prior to 605 B.C., or perhaps as late as 597 B.C. Historically, Habakkuk has been dated to 620 to 609 B.C.


ZEPHANIAH

Zephaniah speaks of the future tribulation that will fall on the earth:

"The great day of the LORD is near; near and coming quickly. Listen! The cry on the day of the LORD will be bitter, the shouting of the warrior there. That day will be a day of wrath, a day of distress and anguish, a day of trouble and ruin, a day of darkness and gloom, a day of clouds and blackness, a day of trumpet and battle cry against the fortified cities and against the corner towers. I will bring distress on the people and they will walk like blind men, because they have sinned against the LORD. Their blood will be poured out like dust and their entrails like filth. Neither their silver nor their gold will be able to save them on the day of the LORD's wrath. In the fire of his jealousy the whole world will be consumed, for he will make a sudden end of all who live in the earth." (Zephaniah 1:14-18)

Clearly Zephaniah refers to the inspiration of the Spirit when he introduces passages with "the word of the Lord" and similar phrases. For example, Zephaniah 1:1; 3:8; 3:15 and 3:17. The strong words of Zephaniah are similar to those found in Revelation.

Zephaniah himself dates his prophecy to the days of Josiah who reigned from 640 to 609 B.C. It is likely that his prophecy was a contributing factor to the reforms under Josiah and therefore, the book is to be dated from 636 to 623 B.C.


HAGGAI

Haggai worked to encourage the exiles in rebuilding Jerusalem and the Temple following their return from Babylon. Haggai attests to inspiration in such verses as Haggai 1:2; 1:3; 1:5; 1:7; 1:9; 2:1, 2:4; 2:6 and 2:10 where he refers to "word of the LORD," "declares the LORD " or other similar phrase. It is clear from the book itself that Haggai was seen as a prophet:

Then Zerubbabel son of Shealtiel, Joshua son of Jehozadak, the high priest, and the whole remnant of the people obeyed the voice of the LORD their God and the message of the prophet Haggai, because the LORD their God had sent him. And the people feared the LORD.. (Haggai 1:12)

The four messages of Haggai are dated within the text itself. The first message in late August or early September 520 BC:

In the second year of King Darius, on the first day of the sixth month, the word of the LORD came through the prophet Haggai to Zerubbabel son of Shealtiel, governor of Judah, and to Joshua son of Jehozadak, the high priest. . . (Haggai 1:1)

The second oracle was given less than two months later:

On the twenty-first day of the seventh month, the word of the LORD came through the prophet Haggai. . . (Haggai 2:1)

Haggai's third message was brought near year-end:

On the twenty-fourth day of the ninth month, in the second year of Darius, the word of the LORD came to the prophet Haggai. . . (Haggai 2:10)

as was the fourth message:

The word of the LORD came to Haggai a second time on the twenty-fourth day of the month. . . (Haggai 2:20)

Thus the prophecies of Haggai may be clearly dated to 520 or 519 B.C., all within six months of one another.


ZECHARIAH

Zechariah was a contemporary of Haggai who, like Haggai provided encouragement to Zerubbabel. Many verses such as Zechariah 1:1; 1:3; 1:6; 1:9 and 1:12 speak of "the word of the LORD." This type of statement is found in every chapter of the book, providing repeated attestation of the inspiration of Zechariah. Zechariah prophesies the new Jerusalem, the overthrow of nations and the Messiah:

Rejoice greatly, O Daughter of Zion! Shout, Daughter of Jerusalem! See, your king comes to you, righteous and having salvation, gentle and riding on a donkey, on a colt, the foal of a donkey. (Zechariah 9:9)

This prophecy was fulfilled by Jesus at His triumphal entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday:

As they approached Jerusalem and came to Bethphage on the Mount of Olives, Jesus sent two disciples, saying to them, "Go to the village ahead of you, and at once you will find a donkey tied there, with her colt by her. Untie them and bring them to me. If anyone says anything to you, tell him that the Lord needs them, and he will send them right away." (Matthew 21:1-3)

The book of Zechariah begins by dating the first of his prophecies to 520 B.C., the same year as the prophetic statements of Haggai. His last dated prophecy given in chapter 7 was given in 518 B.C.; however, later chapters give an indication of much later prophecy:

I will bend Judah as I bend my bow and fill it with Ephraim. I will rouse your sons, O Zion, against your sons, O Greece, and make you like a warrior's sword. . . (Zechariah 9:13)

Since it was not until around 490 B.C. that the Medo-Persian empire began a westward expansion toward Greece and was decisively repelled in a humiliation defeat at Marathon. It was at this time that Greece began to emerge as a world power, in a see-saw battle over control of the Aegean Sea for decades. Thus the reference to Greece in chapter 9 would seem to date the later prophecies of Zechariah to the early 5th Century B.C. Thus, Zechariah may be dated from 520 to 490 B.C.


MALACHI

Malachi was the last of the prophets to speak before the coming of Israel's Messiah. He begins with an "oracle" and continues with several references such as "says the Lord." See for example, Malachi 1:6; 3:1 and 4:1. Malachi is quoted in Matthew, Mark, Luke and Romans.

The internal evidence of the book points to prophecies from the second half of the 5th Century B.C. This evidence includes the following:

1. The Temple had been completed and the Temple sacrifices had been restored.
2. A Persian governor was ruling over the people at the time.
3. The sins denounced by Malachi were the same as previously corrected by Nehemiah.

Thus it is reasonable to date Malachi to 436 to 415 B.C.