In the opening verses of the prophecy of Hosea, he is instructed by God to "take to yourself a wife of whoredom" (Hosea 1:2, ESV). As a result, Hosea marries Gomer. One of the questions that came up in regard to this passage was whether Gomer was actually a prostitute or whether she was simply unfaithful.
The word translated as "whoredom" in the ESV (also KJV) is variously translated as "harlotry" (NASB, NKJV), "adulterous" (NIV), "prostitute" (NET, NLT), and "promiscuous" (HCSB). The Hebrew word is based on the noun zona which according to Holladay's A Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament means "someone practicing prostitution either occasionally or professionally." Not all lexicographers, however, agree that the word is necessarily intended to mean "prostitution." Gesenius' Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures (c. 1812) suggests that the word may be taken as "fornication" or "adultery" although the Hebrew word na'ap is used of adultery in the seventh of the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:14). The Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament suggests that na'ap is never used of the professional prostitute, but is used of an adulterous married woman (Leviticus 20:10, Ezekiel 16:32-36, Hosea 3:1, Hosea 3:3). In the story of Judah and his daughter-in-law Tamar (Genesis 38:6-26), it is clear that she poses as a prostitute, exchanging sexual favors for a fee, and the Hebrew word used there is zona.
The Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Old Testament, is not much help here. It uses the word porneias (think "pornography") which the Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament notes may be interpreted as "every kind of extramarital, unlawful, or unnatural sexual intercourse; fornication, sexual immorality, prostitution." The New Testament never uses porneias of adultery, but of fornication, immorality and other sexual sin; even in cases where there is a direct quote of the Old Testament such as Mark 10:19, Romans 13:9 or James 2:11.
So, although there is no clear consensus as to whether Gomer was a prostitute or not it seems reasonable to me that she was. Had she simply been an adulterous married woman, it would have been impossible for Hosea to marry her without her first getting a divorce. But Mosaic Law would have demanded that she and her lover be stoned (Leviticus 20:10) rather than allowed to divorce and remarry.
Showing posts with label Hosea. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Hosea. Show all posts
Sunday, April 13, 2008
Sunday, April 6, 2008
Introduction to Hosea
Hosea (which means salvation) was a prophet of the Kingdom of Judah who God used to teach the nation about the consequences of unfaithfulness. He was instructed by God to marry a prostitute as an example of the relationship between Israel and Yahweh. Like the major prophets, Hosea introduces his prophetic statements with the phrase "the word of the Lord came," "the Lord said," or "listen to the word of the Lord." The final verse reads:
Author
Hosea was a prophet of Israel who tells us in the very first verse both his father and those kings who were contemporary with his message:
Although we know little of Hosea's life prior to his writing, one could conclude that his family was agricultural because of the settings he used in his illustrations.
Date
In the opening verse Hosea tells us of the time of his message, listing the kings who reigned over both Judah and Israel during his ministry:
Based on this, the messages of the book of Hosea must have been delivered from approximately 755 - 712 BC, and were likely compiled into a single volume near the end of his ministry. It has been suggested that the book was compiled prior to the Assyrian Captivity of 722 BC since there is no mention of that judgment having come to pass. Gleason Archer suggests a date of 722 BC.
Language Style
Hosea is a prose narrative book which begins as a biographical record of Hosea and his unfaithful wife. This information serves as an introduction to, and a symbol of the prophecies in the later chapters of the book.
Place in the Canon
Hosea, like all the "minor prophets" of the Christian canon, has been retained as Scripture through the Church age. In the Hebrew Scriptures, Hosea is located in the "Book of the Twelve" as a single scroll which includes all twelve of these, the final books of the Old Testament. Within the Hebrew canon, the Book of the Twelve is located in the second division known as "The Prophets" and follows immediately behind Ezekiel. The Christian canon maintained the minor prophets in the same order as found in the Hebrew Bible; namely Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi.
Theme
The theme of the book of Hosea is the unfaithfulness of the people of Israel. In order to make the clearest presentation to the people, God had Hosea marry a prostitute and used this relationship as a figure of the relationship between Israel and God.
This is shown as related to Israel in Chapter 4:
Yet God promises restoration; again demonstrated in the lives of Hosea and Gomer:
This is applied to Israel later:
Critical Issues
The primary complaint against Hosea is God's command to the prophet to marry an adulterous woman. Because of the prevailing opinion that God would not have a holy man marry a woman like Gomer, many have attempted to allegorize the first part of the book. Others, however, tend to the declaration that Gomer was not immoral prior to her marriage, but became so afterward. Leon Wood, as pointed out by Gleason Archer notes that the phrase "wife of harlotry" would mean "a woman of adulterous character" rather than a prostitute which would be rendered by the word, zona. Wood notes that in order to well represent the character of Israel, Gomer would not have been an adulterous woman at the time of her wedding, just as at the time of the exodus, Israel was in a meaningful covenant relationship with God. It is also noted that Gomer's first child, Jezreel, is explicitly stated as being fathered by Hosea, whereas Lo-Ruhamah and Lo-Ammi have no such statement. Thus the second and third children may be the result of Gomer's adultery.
Thus, the argument is that since the book is given in a direct autobiographical narrative, without even a hint at being a parable or allegory; the direct statements in regard to the children of Gomer; the fact of God's command to Hosea; and the mirror image of Hosea's marriage seen in the character of Israel, one must consider the book as divinely inspired.
Background Reading
2 Kings 15:1 – 2 Kings 20:21
2 Chronicles 26:1 – 32:33
Isaiah 36:1 – 39:8
Outline of Hosea
A. Unfaithful Wife, Faithful Husband – Hosea 1:1 – 3:5
1. Take an Adulterous Wife – Hosea 1:1 – 2:1
2. The Punishment and Restoration of Gomer (Israel) – Hosea 2:2 – 2:23
3. Hosea's Reconciliation with Gomer – Hosea 3:1 – 3:5
B. Unfaithful Nation, Faithful God – Hosea 4:1 – 14:9
1. The Unfaithfulness of Israel – Hosea 4:1 – 4:19
2. The Judgment of Israel – Hosea 5:1 – 5:15
3. Israel Does Not Turn – Hosea 6:1 – 7:16
4. Israel Will Receive Her Reward – Hosea 8:1 – 8:14
5. Israel's Punishment – Hosea 9:1 – 10:15
6. God Remains Faithful – Hosea 11:1 – 11:11
7. Israel's Sin – Hosea 11:12 – 12:14
8. God's Anger Against Israel – Hosea 13:1 – 13:16
9. Repentance Will Bring Blessing – Hosea 14:1 – 14:9
Whoever is wise, let him understand these things; whoever is discerning, let him know them; for the ways of the LORD are right, and the upright walk in them, but transgressors stumble in them. (Hosea 14:9)
Author
Hosea was a prophet of Israel who tells us in the very first verse both his father and those kings who were contemporary with his message:
The word of the LORD that came to Hosea, the son of Beeri, in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel. (Hosea 1:1)
Although we know little of Hosea's life prior to his writing, one could conclude that his family was agricultural because of the settings he used in his illustrations.
Date
In the opening verse Hosea tells us of the time of his message, listing the kings who reigned over both Judah and Israel during his ministry:
The word of the LORD that came to Hosea, the son of Beeri, in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel. (Hosea 1:1)
Based on this, the messages of the book of Hosea must have been delivered from approximately 755 - 712 BC, and were likely compiled into a single volume near the end of his ministry. It has been suggested that the book was compiled prior to the Assyrian Captivity of 722 BC since there is no mention of that judgment having come to pass. Gleason Archer suggests a date of 722 BC.
Language Style
Hosea is a prose narrative book which begins as a biographical record of Hosea and his unfaithful wife. This information serves as an introduction to, and a symbol of the prophecies in the later chapters of the book.
Place in the Canon
Hosea, like all the "minor prophets" of the Christian canon, has been retained as Scripture through the Church age. In the Hebrew Scriptures, Hosea is located in the "Book of the Twelve" as a single scroll which includes all twelve of these, the final books of the Old Testament. Within the Hebrew canon, the Book of the Twelve is located in the second division known as "The Prophets" and follows immediately behind Ezekiel. The Christian canon maintained the minor prophets in the same order as found in the Hebrew Bible; namely Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi.
Theme
The theme of the book of Hosea is the unfaithfulness of the people of Israel. In order to make the clearest presentation to the people, God had Hosea marry a prostitute and used this relationship as a figure of the relationship between Israel and God.
When the LORD first spoke through Hosea, the LORD said to Hosea, “Go, take to yourself a wife of whoredom and have children of whoredom, for the land commits great whoredom by forsaking the LORD.” (Hosea 1:2)
This is shown as related to Israel in Chapter 4:
Hear the word of the LORD, O children of Israel, for the LORD has a controversy with the inhabitants of the land. There is no faithfulness or steadfast love, and no knowledge of God in the land; there is swearing, lying, murder, stealing, and committing adultery; they break all bounds, and bloodshed follows bloodshed. (Hosea 4:1-2)
Yet God promises restoration; again demonstrated in the lives of Hosea and Gomer:
And the LORD said to me, “Go again, love a woman who is loved by another man and is an adulteress, even as the LORD loves the children of Israel, though they turn to other gods and love cakes of raisins.” (Hosea 3:1)
This is applied to Israel later:
Return, O Israel, to the LORD your God, for you have stumbled because of your iniquity. Take with you words and return to the LORD; say to him, “Take away all iniquity; accept what is good, and we will pay with bulls the vows of our lips. . . . I will heal their apostasy; I will love them freely, for my anger has turned from them. I will be like the dew to Israel; he shall blossom like the lily; he shall take root like the trees of Lebanon; his shoots shall spread out; his beauty shall be like the olive, and his fragrance like Lebanon. (Hosea 14:1-2; 4-6)
Critical Issues
The primary complaint against Hosea is God's command to the prophet to marry an adulterous woman. Because of the prevailing opinion that God would not have a holy man marry a woman like Gomer, many have attempted to allegorize the first part of the book. Others, however, tend to the declaration that Gomer was not immoral prior to her marriage, but became so afterward. Leon Wood, as pointed out by Gleason Archer notes that the phrase "wife of harlotry" would mean "a woman of adulterous character" rather than a prostitute which would be rendered by the word, zona. Wood notes that in order to well represent the character of Israel, Gomer would not have been an adulterous woman at the time of her wedding, just as at the time of the exodus, Israel was in a meaningful covenant relationship with God. It is also noted that Gomer's first child, Jezreel, is explicitly stated as being fathered by Hosea, whereas Lo-Ruhamah and Lo-Ammi have no such statement. Thus the second and third children may be the result of Gomer's adultery.
Thus, the argument is that since the book is given in a direct autobiographical narrative, without even a hint at being a parable or allegory; the direct statements in regard to the children of Gomer; the fact of God's command to Hosea; and the mirror image of Hosea's marriage seen in the character of Israel, one must consider the book as divinely inspired.
Background Reading
2 Kings 15:1 – 2 Kings 20:21
2 Chronicles 26:1 – 32:33
Isaiah 36:1 – 39:8
Outline of Hosea
A. Unfaithful Wife, Faithful Husband – Hosea 1:1 – 3:5
1. Take an Adulterous Wife – Hosea 1:1 – 2:1
2. The Punishment and Restoration of Gomer (Israel) – Hosea 2:2 – 2:23
3. Hosea's Reconciliation with Gomer – Hosea 3:1 – 3:5
B. Unfaithful Nation, Faithful God – Hosea 4:1 – 14:9
1. The Unfaithfulness of Israel – Hosea 4:1 – 4:19
2. The Judgment of Israel – Hosea 5:1 – 5:15
3. Israel Does Not Turn – Hosea 6:1 – 7:16
4. Israel Will Receive Her Reward – Hosea 8:1 – 8:14
5. Israel's Punishment – Hosea 9:1 – 10:15
6. God Remains Faithful – Hosea 11:1 – 11:11
7. Israel's Sin – Hosea 11:12 – 12:14
8. God's Anger Against Israel – Hosea 13:1 – 13:16
9. Repentance Will Bring Blessing – Hosea 14:1 – 14:9
Saturday, March 15, 2008
Introduction to the Minor Prophets
This week we begin a session on the twelve "minor prophets." This title originated sometime in the 4th Century A.D. and refers not to the message of these men, but of the length of their prophecies. Altogether, the minor prophets contain 67 chapters. Thus, when compared to the 66 chapters of Isaiah, the 52 chapters found in Jeremiah and Ezekiel's 48 chapters, the compilation of the twelve minor prophets is of similar length. In fact, the Hebrew Bible was the first to combine these dozen prophecies into a single volume and refers to it simply as the book of the "Twelve Prophets."
Of the twelve, three were prophets of Israel, the Northern Kingdom, sent with specific messages to that kingdom and in the case of Jonah, to Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrian Empire which ultimately conquered Israel. Six of the books are from prophets of Judah with three ministering prior to the Assyrian captivity of Israel and three just before the Babylonian captivity of Judah. The final three prophets were post-exilic prophets; contemporary with Ezra and Nehemiah.
The following table lists each of the twelve prophets in their biblical order along with the dates of their ministries, their target audience, the problems they sought to highlight and the primary message they carried from God. It is not certain why the minor prophets are placed in their specific sequence in the scriptures; being neither alphabetical, chronological, lengthwise, or by their target audience.
The twelve separate books of the minor prophets of the Christian canon, have been retained as Scripture through the Church age and correspond exactly with the order of the single-volume "Book of the Twelve" found in the Hebrew Scriptures. In the Hebrew Bible, this book is on a single scroll which includes all twelve of these, the final books of the Old Testament, perhaps because their combined size would be similar to that of Isaiah.
Within the Hebrew canon, the Book of the Twelve is located in the second division known as "The Prophets" and follows immediately behind Ezekiel. The Christian canon maintained the minor prophets in the same order as found in the Hebrew Bible; namely Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi. The Septuagint (LXX; the Greek translation of the Old Testament), however, orders the books slightly differently: Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi.
HOSEA
Hosea was a prophet of the kingdom of Judah who God used to teach the nation about the consequences of unfaithfulness. He was instructed by God to marry a prostitute as an example of the relationship between Israel and Yahweh. Like the major prophets, Hosea introduces his prophetic statements with the phrase "the word of the Lord came," "the Lord said," or "listen to the word of the Lord."
The messages of the book of Hosea must have been delivered from approximately 755 to 712 B.C., and were likely compiled into a single volume near the end of his ministry. It has been suggested that the book was compiled prior to the Assyrian Captivity of 722 B.C. since there is no mention of that judgment having come to pass.
JOEL
The subject of Joel's prophecy is the "great and awesome" day of the Lord. In this, many of his prophecies take us to the future tribulation period. Throughout the book, Joel introduces his prophecy with "the word of the Lord," "the Lord has spoken," "I am the Lord your God," or a similar phrase that is clearly a reference to the specific and direct word of Yahweh. Joel is often quoted by other biblical writers; the most famous being Peter's quote in Acts 2:17-21 of Joel 2:
Joel concludes with great hope for the restoration of Israel:
The prophecy of Joel has been dated everywhere from the 9th Century B.C. to the 4th Century B.C., with portions dated as late as 200 B.C. However, the internal evidence points to the reign of Joash while the high priest Jehoida ruled. Gleason Archer notes the following:
Thus, Joel should be dated to near the end of the 9th Century B.C., perhaps in the period from 825 to 811 B.C.
AMOS
Although not a "professional prophet," Amos spoke of the Lord coming against injustice and defending the oppressed. Like other prophets, Amos introduces his words with a reference to "the word of the Lord." For example, in Amos 2:16 he ends with the phrase "declares the LORD." Other examples may be found in Amos 1:3; 3:1; 7:1 and 8:1. The main prophetic promise is found in Chapter 9:
It is clear from the text of the book that Amos prophesied during the reign of Amaziah, King of Judah:
It is certain that Amaziah reigned from 796 to 767 B.C. However, Amos gives us another clue in his very first sentence. The prophecy was "two years before the earthquake" during the reign of Uzziah which was remembered for years. Uzziah was king of Judah from 792 to 740 B.C., but was struck with leprosy and forced to live outside the palace for the remainder of his life (2 Kings 15:5). His son Jotham became co-regent from 750 to 740 B.C. It could be argued from this data that the earthquake would have been prior to the co-regency of Jotham, thus Amos would have been written no later than perhaps 752 B.C. Yet parts of the book were written during the reign of Amaziah. Thus, Amos should be dated between 768 and 755 B.C.
OBADIAH
Obadiah is the shortest book of the Old Testament. Nonetheless, the inspiration is attested both internally and by quotes in both Jeremiah and Amos. He begins with the phrase "thus says the LORD," and ends verse 18 with "for the LORD has spoken." The entire book is written to denounce Edom for her treatment of Israel.
The book of Obadiah, although the shortest of the Old Testament prophetic writings, has proven to be one of the most difficult to date. Most scholars tend to attempt the dating of the book by verses 11-14 which read:
Proponents of an early date claim this passage is in reference to the invasion of Jerusalem by the Philistines and Arabs during the reign of Jehoram between 848 and 841 B.C. Those who support a late date believe that this passage refers to the Babylonian attacks on Jerusalem between 605 and 586 B.C. If, as conservative scholarship has maintained for years, Obadiah was contemporary with Jehoram, the date of his book must have been from 848 to 841 B.C., or some time shortly thereafter.
JONAH
Jonah is that well-known prophet who, when sent to Nineveh to proclaim their sin and to demand repentance, ran the other way – away from God. Three of its four chapters has a reference to "the word of the LORD," "the LORD said," or "God said." Reference may be made to Jonah 1:1; 3:1, 4:4; 4:6; 4:9 and 4:10. It is clear from God's message that the mercy God had on Nineveh was fully in keeping with His revealed attributes shown elsewhere in the Scriptures.
Jonah is mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25 and alluded to in Nahum and Zephaniah; however, the most credible external evidence for the inspiration of the book is from Jesus himself:
Because Jonah was sent to proclaim the word of God to Nineveh, the book must have been written well before the Assyrian conquest of Israel. Jonah is made reference to in 2 Kings 14:25 during the reign of Jereboam II who was king of Israel from 793 to 752 B.C. Jonah is generally dated from 788 to 774 B.C.
MICAH
Micah was a prophet from the late 8th Century B.C. Like the other prophets, Micah often refers to "the word of the Lord" or a similar phrase. See, for example, Micah 1:2; 2:3; 3:5; 4:6; 5:2; 5:10 and 6:3. The priests, in telling Herod where the Messiah was to be born quoted Micah:
Jesus, too, quoted from Micah when he commissioned His disciples in Matthew 10:35-36:
Micah may be dated to the middle of the 8th Century B.C. based upon the first verse in the book:
Jotham became king of Judah in about 750 B.C. and Hezekiah reigned until 686 B.C. It is not realistic to claim that Micah's ministry covered the entire 64-year period of these kings, but some overlap between Jotham and Hezekiah, with the bulk of his ministry during the reign of Ahaz from 735 to 715 B.C. Thus, Micah may be dated to the period from 734 to 700 B.C.
NAHUM
Nineveh, the foundation of which was laid by Nimrod, was the last capital of the Assyrian empire. Under the rule of Sennacherib, Assyria was one of the great enemies in Israel's history. Nineveh was located near modern-day Mosul in Iraq, on the east bank of the Tigris River.
In 705 B.C., Sennacherib established Nineveh as the capital of the Assyrian empire. He built a wall around Nineveh that was 40 to 50 feet high. It extended along the Tigris River and around the inner city. The wall had 15 main gates. Each of the gates was guarded by stone bull statues. Both inside and outside the walls, Sennacherib created parks, a botanical garden and a zoo. He built a water-system containing the oldest aqueduct in history and the largest palace of its time.
In 612 B.C., Nabopolassar, the king of Babylon, united the Babylonian army with an army of Medes and Scythians and attacked, looted and destroyed Nineveh as predicted by the prophet Nahum, marking the end of the Assyrian empire and prepared the way for the Neo-Babylonian empire.
Since Nahum refers to the fall of Thebes as a past event (Nahum 3:8 ff) the book must be dated later than 661 B.C. However, as prophecy, it must be dated prior to the fall of Nineveh to Nebuchadnezzar in 612 B.C. Thus, Nahum has historically been dated from 650 to 620 B.C.
HABAKKUK
Habakkuk is described as the "choir director" in Habakkuk 3:19, yet this is about all we know of him. He notes in the opening verse that this is an "oracle" which he saw and then moves to a pair of questions and answers; the questions from the prophet and the answers from God. See Habakkuk 2:2. His questions are centered around the wickedness of Judah; wondering how that wickedness can go unpunished. In response to God's answer, he asks why God would choose an evil nation such as Babylon to chastise Judah. God's answer is simple and direct:
Habakkuk appears to have ministered during the reign of Jehoiakim from 609 to 598 B.C., although a slightly earlier date is possible. The Babylonians are mentioned as a formidable foe and this would not have been the case prior to around 620 to 610 BC:
As a prophecy against Judah, the fulfillment of which came with the conquest of Jerusalem, the book must have been written prior to 605 B.C., or perhaps as late as 597 B.C. Historically, Habakkuk has been dated to 620 to 609 B.C.
ZEPHANIAH
Zephaniah speaks of the future tribulation that will fall on the earth:
Clearly Zephaniah refers to the inspiration of the Spirit when he introduces passages with "the word of the Lord" and similar phrases. For example, Zephaniah 1:1; 3:8; 3:15 and 3:17. The strong words of Zephaniah are similar to those found in Revelation.
Zephaniah himself dates his prophecy to the days of Josiah who reigned from 640 to 609 B.C. It is likely that his prophecy was a contributing factor to the reforms under Josiah and therefore, the book is to be dated from 636 to 623 B.C.
HAGGAI
Haggai worked to encourage the exiles in rebuilding Jerusalem and the Temple following their return from Babylon. Haggai attests to inspiration in such verses as Haggai 1:2; 1:3; 1:5; 1:7; 1:9; 2:1, 2:4; 2:6 and 2:10 where he refers to "word of the LORD," "declares the LORD " or other similar phrase. It is clear from the book itself that Haggai was seen as a prophet:
The four messages of Haggai are dated within the text itself. The first message in late August or early September 520 BC:
The second oracle was given less than two months later:
Haggai's third message was brought near year-end:
as was the fourth message:
Thus the prophecies of Haggai may be clearly dated to 520 or 519 B.C., all within six months of one another.
ZECHARIAH
Zechariah was a contemporary of Haggai who, like Haggai provided encouragement to Zerubbabel. Many verses such as Zechariah 1:1; 1:3; 1:6; 1:9 and 1:12 speak of "the word of the LORD." This type of statement is found in every chapter of the book, providing repeated attestation of the inspiration of Zechariah. Zechariah prophesies the new Jerusalem, the overthrow of nations and the Messiah:
This prophecy was fulfilled by Jesus at His triumphal entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday:
The book of Zechariah begins by dating the first of his prophecies to 520 B.C., the same year as the prophetic statements of Haggai. His last dated prophecy given in chapter 7 was given in 518 B.C.; however, later chapters give an indication of much later prophecy:
Since it was not until around 490 B.C. that the Medo-Persian empire began a westward expansion toward Greece and was decisively repelled in a humiliation defeat at Marathon. It was at this time that Greece began to emerge as a world power, in a see-saw battle over control of the Aegean Sea for decades. Thus the reference to Greece in chapter 9 would seem to date the later prophecies of Zechariah to the early 5th Century B.C. Thus, Zechariah may be dated from 520 to 490 B.C.
MALACHI
Malachi was the last of the prophets to speak before the coming of Israel's Messiah. He begins with an "oracle" and continues with several references such as "says the Lord." See for example, Malachi 1:6; 3:1 and 4:1. Malachi is quoted in Matthew, Mark, Luke and Romans.
The internal evidence of the book points to prophecies from the second half of the 5th Century B.C. This evidence includes the following:
Thus it is reasonable to date Malachi to 436 to 415 B.C.
Of the twelve, three were prophets of Israel, the Northern Kingdom, sent with specific messages to that kingdom and in the case of Jonah, to Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrian Empire which ultimately conquered Israel. Six of the books are from prophets of Judah with three ministering prior to the Assyrian captivity of Israel and three just before the Babylonian captivity of Judah. The final three prophets were post-exilic prophets; contemporary with Ezra and Nehemiah.
The following table lists each of the twelve prophets in their biblical order along with the dates of their ministries, their target audience, the problems they sought to highlight and the primary message they carried from God. It is not certain why the minor prophets are placed in their specific sequence in the scriptures; being neither alphabetical, chronological, lengthwise, or by their target audience.
The twelve separate books of the minor prophets of the Christian canon, have been retained as Scripture through the Church age and correspond exactly with the order of the single-volume "Book of the Twelve" found in the Hebrew Scriptures. In the Hebrew Bible, this book is on a single scroll which includes all twelve of these, the final books of the Old Testament, perhaps because their combined size would be similar to that of Isaiah.
Within the Hebrew canon, the Book of the Twelve is located in the second division known as "The Prophets" and follows immediately behind Ezekiel. The Christian canon maintained the minor prophets in the same order as found in the Hebrew Bible; namely Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi. The Septuagint (LXX; the Greek translation of the Old Testament), however, orders the books slightly differently: Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi.
HOSEA
Hosea was a prophet of the kingdom of Judah who God used to teach the nation about the consequences of unfaithfulness. He was instructed by God to marry a prostitute as an example of the relationship between Israel and Yahweh. Like the major prophets, Hosea introduces his prophetic statements with the phrase "the word of the Lord came," "the Lord said," or "listen to the word of the Lord."
The messages of the book of Hosea must have been delivered from approximately 755 to 712 B.C., and were likely compiled into a single volume near the end of his ministry. It has been suggested that the book was compiled prior to the Assyrian Captivity of 722 B.C. since there is no mention of that judgment having come to pass.
JOEL
The subject of Joel's prophecy is the "great and awesome" day of the Lord. In this, many of his prophecies take us to the future tribulation period. Throughout the book, Joel introduces his prophecy with "the word of the Lord," "the Lord has spoken," "I am the Lord your God," or a similar phrase that is clearly a reference to the specific and direct word of Yahweh. Joel is often quoted by other biblical writers; the most famous being Peter's quote in Acts 2:17-21 of Joel 2:
"And afterward, I will pour out my Spirit on all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your old men will dream dreams, your young men will see visions. Even on my servants, both men and women, I will pour out my Spirit in those days. I will show wonders in the heavens and on the earth, blood and fire and billows of smoke. The sun will be turned to darkness and the moon to blood before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the LORD. And everyone who calls on the name of the LORD will be saved; for on Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there will be deliverance, as the LORD has said, among the survivors whom the LORD calls." (Joel 2:28-32)
Joel concludes with great hope for the restoration of Israel:
"Judah will be inhabited forever and Jerusalem through all generations. Their bloodguilt, which I have not pardoned, I will pardon." The LORD dwells in Zion! (Joel 3:20-21)
The prophecy of Joel has been dated everywhere from the 9th Century B.C. to the 4th Century B.C., with portions dated as late as 200 B.C. However, the internal evidence points to the reign of Joash while the high priest Jehoida ruled. Gleason Archer notes the following:
1. The type of government implied by these prophetic utterances best accords with a regency. According to 2 Kings 11:4, the facts fit the context of the book.
2. There is distinct evidence of borrowing, as between Amos and Joel. Phrases such as "the mountains will drip with sweet wine" occur in both Joel 3:18 and Amos 9:13.
3. The list of Judah's enemies focuses on the Phonecians, Philistines, Egyptians and Edomites, not the Babylonians or the Assyrians.
Thus, Joel should be dated to near the end of the 9th Century B.C., perhaps in the period from 825 to 811 B.C.
AMOS
Although not a "professional prophet," Amos spoke of the Lord coming against injustice and defending the oppressed. Like other prophets, Amos introduces his words with a reference to "the word of the Lord." For example, in Amos 2:16 he ends with the phrase "declares the LORD." Other examples may be found in Amos 1:3; 3:1; 7:1 and 8:1. The main prophetic promise is found in Chapter 9:
"In that day I will restore David's fallen tent. I will repair its broken places, restore its ruins, and build it as it used to be, so that they may possess the remnant of Edom and all the nations that bear my name," declares the LORD, who will do these things. "The days are coming," declares the LORD, "when the reaper will be overtaken by the plowman and the planter by the one treading grapes. New wine will drip from the mountains and flow from all the hills. I will bring back my exiled people Israel; they will rebuild the ruined cities and live in them. They will plant vineyards and drink their wine; they will make gardens and eat their fruit. I will plant Israel in their own land, never again to be uprooted from the land I have given them," says the LORD your God. (Amos 9:11-15)
It is clear from the text of the book that Amos prophesied during the reign of Amaziah, King of Judah:
Then Amaziah the priest of Bethel sent a message to Jeroboam king of Israel: "Amos is raising a conspiracy against you in the very heart of Israel. The land cannot bear all his words. For this is what Amos is saying: "'Jeroboam will die by the sword, and Israel will surely go into exile, away from their native land.'" (Amos 7:10-11)
It is certain that Amaziah reigned from 796 to 767 B.C. However, Amos gives us another clue in his very first sentence. The prophecy was "two years before the earthquake" during the reign of Uzziah which was remembered for years. Uzziah was king of Judah from 792 to 740 B.C., but was struck with leprosy and forced to live outside the palace for the remainder of his life (2 Kings 15:5). His son Jotham became co-regent from 750 to 740 B.C. It could be argued from this data that the earthquake would have been prior to the co-regency of Jotham, thus Amos would have been written no later than perhaps 752 B.C. Yet parts of the book were written during the reign of Amaziah. Thus, Amos should be dated between 768 and 755 B.C.
OBADIAH
Obadiah is the shortest book of the Old Testament. Nonetheless, the inspiration is attested both internally and by quotes in both Jeremiah and Amos. He begins with the phrase "thus says the LORD," and ends verse 18 with "for the LORD has spoken." The entire book is written to denounce Edom for her treatment of Israel.
The book of Obadiah, although the shortest of the Old Testament prophetic writings, has proven to be one of the most difficult to date. Most scholars tend to attempt the dating of the book by verses 11-14 which read:
On the day you stood aloof while strangers carried off his wealth and foreigners entered his gates and cast lots for Jerusalem, you were like one of them. You should not look down on your brother in the day of his misfortune, nor rejoice over the people of Judah in the day of their destruction, nor boast so much in the day of their trouble. You should not march through the gates of my people in the day of their disaster, nor look down on them in their calamity in the day of their disaster, nor seize their wealth in the day of their disaster. You should not wait at the crossroads to cut down their fugitives, nor hand over their survivors in the day of their trouble. (Obadiah 11-14)
Proponents of an early date claim this passage is in reference to the invasion of Jerusalem by the Philistines and Arabs during the reign of Jehoram between 848 and 841 B.C. Those who support a late date believe that this passage refers to the Babylonian attacks on Jerusalem between 605 and 586 B.C. If, as conservative scholarship has maintained for years, Obadiah was contemporary with Jehoram, the date of his book must have been from 848 to 841 B.C., or some time shortly thereafter.
JONAH
Jonah is that well-known prophet who, when sent to Nineveh to proclaim their sin and to demand repentance, ran the other way – away from God. Three of its four chapters has a reference to "the word of the LORD," "the LORD said," or "God said." Reference may be made to Jonah 1:1; 3:1, 4:4; 4:6; 4:9 and 4:10. It is clear from God's message that the mercy God had on Nineveh was fully in keeping with His revealed attributes shown elsewhere in the Scriptures.
Jonah is mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25 and alluded to in Nahum and Zephaniah; however, the most credible external evidence for the inspiration of the book is from Jesus himself:
He answered, "A wicked and adulterous generation asks for a miraculous sign! But none will be given it except the sign of the prophet Jonah. For as Jonah was three days and three nights in the belly of a huge fish, so the Son of Man will be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth. The men of Nineveh will stand up at the judgment with this generation and condemn it; for they repented at the preaching of Jonah, and now one greater than Jonah is here." (Matthew 12:39-41)
"For as Jonah was a sign to the Ninevites, so also will the Son of Man be to this generation." (Luke 11:30)
Because Jonah was sent to proclaim the word of God to Nineveh, the book must have been written well before the Assyrian conquest of Israel. Jonah is made reference to in 2 Kings 14:25 during the reign of Jereboam II who was king of Israel from 793 to 752 B.C. Jonah is generally dated from 788 to 774 B.C.
MICAH
Micah was a prophet from the late 8th Century B.C. Like the other prophets, Micah often refers to "the word of the Lord" or a similar phrase. See, for example, Micah 1:2; 2:3; 3:5; 4:6; 5:2; 5:10 and 6:3. The priests, in telling Herod where the Messiah was to be born quoted Micah:
"But you, Bethlehem Ephrathah, though you are small among the clans of Judah, out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times." (Micah 5:2)
Jesus, too, quoted from Micah when he commissioned His disciples in Matthew 10:35-36:
For a son dishonors his father, a daughter rises up against her mother, a daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law; a man's enemies are the members of his own household. (Micah 7:6)
Micah may be dated to the middle of the 8th Century B.C. based upon the first verse in the book:
The word of the LORD that came to Micah of Moresheth during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah; the vision he saw concerning Samaria and Jerusalem. (Micah 1:1)
Jotham became king of Judah in about 750 B.C. and Hezekiah reigned until 686 B.C. It is not realistic to claim that Micah's ministry covered the entire 64-year period of these kings, but some overlap between Jotham and Hezekiah, with the bulk of his ministry during the reign of Ahaz from 735 to 715 B.C. Thus, Micah may be dated to the period from 734 to 700 B.C.
NAHUM
Nineveh, the foundation of which was laid by Nimrod, was the last capital of the Assyrian empire. Under the rule of Sennacherib, Assyria was one of the great enemies in Israel's history. Nineveh was located near modern-day Mosul in Iraq, on the east bank of the Tigris River.
In 705 B.C., Sennacherib established Nineveh as the capital of the Assyrian empire. He built a wall around Nineveh that was 40 to 50 feet high. It extended along the Tigris River and around the inner city. The wall had 15 main gates. Each of the gates was guarded by stone bull statues. Both inside and outside the walls, Sennacherib created parks, a botanical garden and a zoo. He built a water-system containing the oldest aqueduct in history and the largest palace of its time.
In 612 B.C., Nabopolassar, the king of Babylon, united the Babylonian army with an army of Medes and Scythians and attacked, looted and destroyed Nineveh as predicted by the prophet Nahum, marking the end of the Assyrian empire and prepared the way for the Neo-Babylonian empire.
Since Nahum refers to the fall of Thebes as a past event (Nahum 3:8 ff) the book must be dated later than 661 B.C. However, as prophecy, it must be dated prior to the fall of Nineveh to Nebuchadnezzar in 612 B.C. Thus, Nahum has historically been dated from 650 to 620 B.C.
HABAKKUK
Habakkuk is described as the "choir director" in Habakkuk 3:19, yet this is about all we know of him. He notes in the opening verse that this is an "oracle" which he saw and then moves to a pair of questions and answers; the questions from the prophet and the answers from God. See Habakkuk 2:2. His questions are centered around the wickedness of Judah; wondering how that wickedness can go unpunished. In response to God's answer, he asks why God would choose an evil nation such as Babylon to chastise Judah. God's answer is simple and direct:
Then the LORD replied: "Write down the revelation and make it plain on tablets so that a herald may run with it. For the revelation awaits an appointed time; it speaks of the end and will not prove false. Though it linger, wait for it; it will certainly come and will not delay. (Habakkuk 2:2-3)
Habakkuk appears to have ministered during the reign of Jehoiakim from 609 to 598 B.C., although a slightly earlier date is possible. The Babylonians are mentioned as a formidable foe and this would not have been the case prior to around 620 to 610 BC:
"Look at the nations and watch; and be utterly amazed. For I am going to do something in your days that you would not believe, even if you were told. I am raising up the Babylonians, that ruthless and impetuous people, who sweep across the whole earth to seize dwelling places not their own. They are a feared and dreaded people; they are a law to themselves and promote their own honor." (Habakkuk 1:5-7)
As a prophecy against Judah, the fulfillment of which came with the conquest of Jerusalem, the book must have been written prior to 605 B.C., or perhaps as late as 597 B.C. Historically, Habakkuk has been dated to 620 to 609 B.C.
ZEPHANIAH
Zephaniah speaks of the future tribulation that will fall on the earth:
"The great day of the LORD is near; near and coming quickly. Listen! The cry on the day of the LORD will be bitter, the shouting of the warrior there. That day will be a day of wrath, a day of distress and anguish, a day of trouble and ruin, a day of darkness and gloom, a day of clouds and blackness, a day of trumpet and battle cry against the fortified cities and against the corner towers. I will bring distress on the people and they will walk like blind men, because they have sinned against the LORD. Their blood will be poured out like dust and their entrails like filth. Neither their silver nor their gold will be able to save them on the day of the LORD's wrath. In the fire of his jealousy the whole world will be consumed, for he will make a sudden end of all who live in the earth." (Zephaniah 1:14-18)
Clearly Zephaniah refers to the inspiration of the Spirit when he introduces passages with "the word of the Lord" and similar phrases. For example, Zephaniah 1:1; 3:8; 3:15 and 3:17. The strong words of Zephaniah are similar to those found in Revelation.
Zephaniah himself dates his prophecy to the days of Josiah who reigned from 640 to 609 B.C. It is likely that his prophecy was a contributing factor to the reforms under Josiah and therefore, the book is to be dated from 636 to 623 B.C.
HAGGAI
Haggai worked to encourage the exiles in rebuilding Jerusalem and the Temple following their return from Babylon. Haggai attests to inspiration in such verses as Haggai 1:2; 1:3; 1:5; 1:7; 1:9; 2:1, 2:4; 2:6 and 2:10 where he refers to "word of the LORD," "declares the LORD " or other similar phrase. It is clear from the book itself that Haggai was seen as a prophet:
Then Zerubbabel son of Shealtiel, Joshua son of Jehozadak, the high priest, and the whole remnant of the people obeyed the voice of the LORD their God and the message of the prophet Haggai, because the LORD their God had sent him. And the people feared the LORD.. (Haggai 1:12)
The four messages of Haggai are dated within the text itself. The first message in late August or early September 520 BC:
In the second year of King Darius, on the first day of the sixth month, the word of the LORD came through the prophet Haggai to Zerubbabel son of Shealtiel, governor of Judah, and to Joshua son of Jehozadak, the high priest. . . (Haggai 1:1)
The second oracle was given less than two months later:
On the twenty-first day of the seventh month, the word of the LORD came through the prophet Haggai. . . (Haggai 2:1)
Haggai's third message was brought near year-end:
On the twenty-fourth day of the ninth month, in the second year of Darius, the word of the LORD came to the prophet Haggai. . . (Haggai 2:10)
as was the fourth message:
The word of the LORD came to Haggai a second time on the twenty-fourth day of the month. . . (Haggai 2:20)
Thus the prophecies of Haggai may be clearly dated to 520 or 519 B.C., all within six months of one another.
ZECHARIAH
Zechariah was a contemporary of Haggai who, like Haggai provided encouragement to Zerubbabel. Many verses such as Zechariah 1:1; 1:3; 1:6; 1:9 and 1:12 speak of "the word of the LORD." This type of statement is found in every chapter of the book, providing repeated attestation of the inspiration of Zechariah. Zechariah prophesies the new Jerusalem, the overthrow of nations and the Messiah:
Rejoice greatly, O Daughter of Zion! Shout, Daughter of Jerusalem! See, your king comes to you, righteous and having salvation, gentle and riding on a donkey, on a colt, the foal of a donkey. (Zechariah 9:9)
This prophecy was fulfilled by Jesus at His triumphal entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday:
As they approached Jerusalem and came to Bethphage on the Mount of Olives, Jesus sent two disciples, saying to them, "Go to the village ahead of you, and at once you will find a donkey tied there, with her colt by her. Untie them and bring them to me. If anyone says anything to you, tell him that the Lord needs them, and he will send them right away." (Matthew 21:1-3)
The book of Zechariah begins by dating the first of his prophecies to 520 B.C., the same year as the prophetic statements of Haggai. His last dated prophecy given in chapter 7 was given in 518 B.C.; however, later chapters give an indication of much later prophecy:
I will bend Judah as I bend my bow and fill it with Ephraim. I will rouse your sons, O Zion, against your sons, O Greece, and make you like a warrior's sword. . . (Zechariah 9:13)
Since it was not until around 490 B.C. that the Medo-Persian empire began a westward expansion toward Greece and was decisively repelled in a humiliation defeat at Marathon. It was at this time that Greece began to emerge as a world power, in a see-saw battle over control of the Aegean Sea for decades. Thus the reference to Greece in chapter 9 would seem to date the later prophecies of Zechariah to the early 5th Century B.C. Thus, Zechariah may be dated from 520 to 490 B.C.
MALACHI
Malachi was the last of the prophets to speak before the coming of Israel's Messiah. He begins with an "oracle" and continues with several references such as "says the Lord." See for example, Malachi 1:6; 3:1 and 4:1. Malachi is quoted in Matthew, Mark, Luke and Romans.
The internal evidence of the book points to prophecies from the second half of the 5th Century B.C. This evidence includes the following:
1. The Temple had been completed and the Temple sacrifices had been restored.
2. A Persian governor was ruling over the people at the time.
3. The sins denounced by Malachi were the same as previously corrected by Nehemiah.
Thus it is reasonable to date Malachi to 436 to 415 B.C.
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